Bioacoustics of Canis latrans

Movements, Home range and Social organization. The basic social unit is the bonded alpha pair, which may breed for up to 10-12 years. Associate animals often remain in the pack and possibly inherit the pack or displace members of the breeding pair and become alphas themselves. Associates participate in territorial maintenance and pup rearing, but not to the extent of the alpha pair. Other Coyotes exist outside of the resident packs as transient or nomadic individuals. Transients travel alone over larger areas and do not breed, but will move into territories when vacancies occur. One factor that may affect Coyote sociality is prey size or prey biomass. In populations where rodents are the major prey, Coyotes tend to be in pairs or trios. In populations where Elk and deer are available, large packs of up to ten individuals may form. Coyotes are territorial, with a dominance hierarchy within each resident pack. The dominance hierarchy influences access to food resources within the pack. In captivity, pups show early development of aggressive behavior and engage in dominance fights when 19-24 days old. The process of establishing hierarchy within litters appears to last up to 4-5 months. Territoriality regulates Coyote numbers as packs space themselves across the landscape in relation to available food and habitat. Home range size varies with energetic requirements, physiographic makeup, habitat, and food distribution. Home range size is influenced by social organization, with transients using larger areas, and residents occupying distinct territories. Only packs (2-10 animals) maintain and defend territories, both by direct confrontation and indirectly with scent marking and howling. Fidelity to the home range is high and may persist for many years. Shifts in territorial boundaries may occur in response to the loss of one or both of the alpha pair. Pups, yearlings, and non-breeding adults of lower social rank may disperse from the natal site into adjacent areas or farther afield. Dispersal seems to be voluntary, as social and nutritional pressures intensify during winter when food becomes limited. Juveniles usually disperse during autumn and early winter. Pre-dispersal forays may occur. Coyotes communicate using auditory, visual, olfactory, and tactile cues. Studies have identified different types of vocalizations, seasonal patterns, and the influence of social status on vocalization rates. Howling plays a role in territorial maintenance and pack spacing by advertising boundaries and signaling the presence of alpha animals that will confront intruders and defend the territory. Scent marking contributes to territory maintenance and is performed mostly by alpha individuals. Scent marking may also be an indicator of sexual condition, maturity, or synchrony.